By Basil Malaki

How can digital diplomacy buttress Africa’s global competitiveness? This article considers the growing importance of digital diplomacy in global politics. Africa’s place in global diplomacy will be predicated on the continent’s ability to provide equitable access to technology and internet resources for all. Improving access to the internet and other technologies will allow Africans and African governments to effectively contribute to global debates as well as give them an opportunity to influence global politics to favour the continent’s ideological positioning and developmental needs thus driving inclusive development and boosting Africa’s role in global diplomacy. The study compares five regions—Eastern, West, Central, North, and Southern Africa—highlighting both progress and challenges in internet penetration, digital infrastructure, policy efforts, and digital literacy. While North and Eastern Africa lead in infrastructure, barriers like rural-urban gaps and limited digital access persist across the board.
For scholars, policymakers, NGOs, and community leaders, the insights presented help shape digital diplomacy strategies to build digital inclusion. The article outlines how bridging the digital divide can improve Africa’s global competitiveness, promote regional integration, and ensure equitable socio-economic growth. For anyone invested in shaping Africa’s digital future, this analysis offers a comprehensive look at the obstacles, opportunities, and paths forward.

Introduction

In Africa, digital diplomacy presents significant opportunities for enhancing global engagement, promoting regional integration, and advancing development agendas. However, the effectiveness of digital diplomacy is closely tied to the digital divide, a persistent challenge that continues to hinder equitable access to digital technologies and the internet across the continent. 

In the 21st century, digital diplomacy has become a cornerstone of international relations,  driven by the widespread integration of digital tools and technologies into society.  Governments, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), and international bodies utilise platforms like social media and digital forums to engage with counterparts globally, shape public opinion, and advance policy objectives (Mickoleit, 2014). This evolution reflects the changing dynamics of global politics, where traditional diplomacy intersects with the opportunities and challenges of the digital age. 

As nations confront complex geopolitical issues, effective communication and collaboration through digital channels have become essential. Digital diplomacy enables governments to project influence, build alliances, and address transnational challenges in real time,  transcending traditional diplomatic boundaries. It encompasses a range of activities, from official government communications to grassroots advocacy campaigns, serving as a vital tool for promoting national interests and shaping global agendas. However, the digital revolution has also exposed the stark realities of the digital divide, highlighting inequalities in access to technology and digital resources, particularly in Africa. 

Many communities on the continent lack basic internet access and digital devices due to limited infrastructure, high costs, and low levels of digital literacy (Krönke, 2020). This disparity widens the gap between the digitally connected and excluded, exacerbating existing socio-economic inequalities. The digital divide in Africa goes beyond mere connectivity issues, holding profound implications for the continent. In an increasingly digital-dependent world, those left behind risk marginalisation from the benefits of the digital economy, perpetuating existing inequalities in education, healthcare, and economic opportunities (UN-Habitat, 2021).

Bridging this gap is not just a social justice concern but also a strategic imperative for  Africa’s competitiveness and resilience in the digital age. Meanwhile, the intersection of digital diplomacy and the digital divide presents both challenges and opportunities for Africa.  Digital diplomacy offers the potential to address the root causes of the digital divide by fostering international cooperation and mobilising resources for digital infrastructure and literacy. Through diplomatic channels, African governments can advocate for inclusive policies and collaborate with global partners to implement innovative solutions (Abdel Malek, 2015). Additionally, digital diplomacy can empower marginalised communities to engage in global conversations and advocate for their rights. However, the digital divide poses significant obstacles to effective digital diplomacy in  Africa. Limited internet access and low digital literacy rates hinder engagement with global counterparts, while disparities in information access exacerbate existing power imbalances (Diepeveen & Pinet, 2022). These challenges underscore the need for comprehensive strategies to bridge the digital divide and leverage digital diplomacy for inclusive development in Africa. 

In this article, we will explore these dynamics in greater depth, examining the role of digital diplomacy in addressing the digital divide in Africa and advancing inclusive development.  Through case studies, best practices, and policy recommendations, we will highlight the potential of digital diplomacy as a catalyst for change and outline strategies for leveraging diplomatic channels to bridge the digital gap.  

Digital Diplomacy in Retrospect 

In technology, “digital” refers to electronic systems processing data numerically, transforming communication and information handling across fields. It includes computers, smartphones with internet access, the global internet network, and online platforms (West, 2015). These technologies have revolutionised information creation and access, impacting society in governance, commerce, education, and diplomacy.
Diplomacy is the practice of conducting negotiations, forming alliances, and managing international relations between sovereign states and other actors in the international system (Onditi, 2023). It involves a range of activities aimed at advancing a country’s interests, promoting peace, and resolving conflicts through dialogue, negotiation, and cooperation (Krasnyak & Ruffini, 2020). Key aspects of diplomacy include representation, where diplomats act on behalf of their governments to engage with foreign counterparts and advance national interests; negotiation, which aims to reach agreements, treaties, and other diplomatic arrangements promoting mutual interests and resolving disputes; conflict resolution, where diplomacy plays a crucial role in preventing and resolving conflicts between nations through dialogue, mediation, and peaceful means; and information gathering and analysis, where diplomats gather and analyse information relevant to international relations, providing insights to policymakers and contributing to informed decision-making (Krasnyak & Ruffini, 2020). Diplomacy operates within a complex and dynamic international environment, shaped by geopolitical factors, economic interests, cultural differences, and technological advancements.
Digital diplomacy is a term used to describe the utilisation of digital technologies and platforms in diplomatic endeavours. It has become increasingly significant in contemporary international relations (Göksu & Özkan, 2021). It encapsulates a diverse array of tools such as social media platforms, websites, email, video conferencing, and other online channels, which diplomats employ to engage with foreign governments, international organisations, and global audiences (Bjola & Holmes, 2015). Digital diplomacy offers diplomats the opportunity to communicate more efficiently, transcending geographical barriers to reach a broader audience and engage in real-time dialogue (Holmes, 2015). Moreover, it serves as a powerful tool for shaping public opinion on international issues, allowing diplomatic missions to disseminate information, counter misinformation, and promote their country’s foreign policy objectives (Rashica, 2018). Through digital platforms, diplomats can foster connections, build relationships, and enhance mutual understanding between nations in an increasingly interconnected world.
The concept of the digital divide refers to the disparity between individuals who have access to various forms of information and communication technology (ICT), such as computers and the internet, and those who do not (Van Dijk, 2017). This concept is central to discussions about social and information inequality, often revolving around the inclusion or exclusion of individuals from particular social units. Hidalgo et al. (2020) characterised it as disparities in ICT access, particularly internet access, linked to low-income status and lacking motivation. Conversely, Sewchurran (2020) proposed that the digital divide signifies differences in access to online communities spawned by ICT advancements, leading to unequal benefits from the digital age. Carroll (2021) offered a more expansive view, defining it as inconsistencies in both access to and utilisation of ICT. Revina et al. (2020) emphasise the gap between those with and without access and skills informed this study, indicating its prevalence and potential exacerbation due to ongoing technological advancements.

Digital Diplomacy and the Digital Divide in Africa

The increasing relevance of digital technology in global diplomacy, commonly referred to as “digital diplomacy,” has brought to light the disparities in internet access across different regions, particularly in Africa. Digital diplomacy involves the use of digital platforms and tools by governments and international organisations to engage in diplomatic activities, including communication, negotiation, and representation. However, the effectiveness of digital diplomacy is heavily dependent on internet access, a resource that remains unevenly distributed across Africa (Manor, 2019).
Historically, Africa has lagged behind other continents in terms of technological infrastructure development. This gap has contributed to the digital divide—a disparity between those who have access to digital technologies and the internet and those who do not. As of December 2021, internet penetration in Africa was around 40%, significantly lower than the global average of 68% (ITU, 2021). The digital divide in Africa is not just a technological issue; it is also influenced by socio-cultural, political, and economic factors that vary across different regions and countries within the continent (Gagliardone & Calandro, 2019). Socio-cultural factors, such as language, education levels, and societal norms, play a significant role in shaping internet access and usage. For instance, lower literacy rates in many rural areas limit residents’ ability to use digital technologies effectively, while the dominance of global internet content in languages like English and French, rather than local languages, creates barriers for non-native speakers.
Additionally, cultural attitudes towards technology, particularly among older generations, can impede the adoption of digital tools and services (Gagliardone, 2016; Mutsvairo, 2018). Politically, government policies, regulatory frameworks, and the political stability of a country are crucial. In some African nations, restrictive government policies on internet usage and censorship limit access to information and online platforms. Moreover, political instability and conflict can destroy infrastructure, reduce investments in technology, and hinder the rollout of internet services, as seen in conflict-affected regions like the Central African Republic (Gagliardone & Calandro, 2019; Freedom House, 2023). Economically, the high cost of internet services, driven by limited competition among service providers, makes access unaffordable for many, especially in rural and low-income areas. The lack of investment in infrastructure, particularly in remote regions, further exacerbates the divide. Countries with stronger economies, such as South Africa and Kenya, tend to have higher internet penetration rates due to better infrastructure and more affordable services, whereas less advanced nations struggle to provide widespread access (Calandro, Gillwald, & Zingales, 2013; GSMA, 2024). These interconnected factors create a landscape where access to digital technology varies widely across Africa, reinforcing existing inequalities and limiting the continent’s ability to fully participate in the global digital economy and diplomacy.
Regionally, the digital divide in Africa is stark, with southern Africa having an internet penetration rate of nearly 70% in 2023, while East and Central Africa lag far behind with less than 30% (Statista, 2023). This regional disparity is further exacerbated by differences in national policies, infrastructure investments, and socioeconomic conditions. For instance, Morocco leads the continent with an internet penetration rate of approximately 91% as of 2024, while countries like the Central African Republic and Burundi have penetration rates as low as 11% (Internet World Stats, 2024).
The global context of digital diplomacy underscores the importance of closing the digital divide in Africa. As international relations increasingly rely on digital platforms for communication and negotiation, countries with limited internet access are at a significant disadvantage. This disadvantage is particularly evident in landlocked countries where infrastructure development is costly and access to technology is dependent on neighbouring countries (African Union, 2023). For instance, in Chad, a landlocked country, the high cost of infrastructure development and dependency on neighbouring countries for access to undersea cables have significantly hindered the expansion of digital networks. This has left only about 10% of the population with internet access, severely limiting Chad’s ability to engage in global diplomatic efforts (African Union, 2023; ITU, 2021). Similarly, in South Sudan, the challenges of post-conflict reconstruction and limited infrastructure investment have resulted in an internet penetration rate of just 8%, isolating the country from critical international discussions conducted online (World Bank, 2022). The digital divide, therefore, not only hampers domestic socio-economic development by restricting access to information, education, and economic opportunities but also limits African countries’ participation in global diplomacy, where decisions increasingly depend on timely and effective digital communication.

Additionally, government actions and policies in Africa to address the digital divide have been varied. Some countries have made significant strides in expanding internet access through investments in mobile infrastructure, given that mobile devices dominate web traffic on the continent. For instance, Rwanda has implemented a national strategy called “Smart Rwanda Master Plan,” which aims to transform the country into a digital hub by expanding 4G LTE coverage to 95% of the population. As of 2024, Rwanda has achieved an internet penetration rate of around 34.4%, with a significant portion of this driven by mobile internet access (Data Reportal, 2024; GSMA, 2024). However, despite such efforts, many rural and low-income households across the continent remain disconnected. For example, in Nigeria, while urban areas like Lagos and Abuja enjoy high levels of connectivity, rural regions in the northern part of the country suffer from a lack of electricity and high internet service costs, leaving nearly 60% of the rural population without access to the internet (Freedom House, 2023).
International organisations, including the World Bank, have recognised the importance of bridging the digital divide in Africa and are actively supporting national strategies aimed at expanding internet access, particularly in underserved regions. For example, the World Bank’s “Digital Economy for Africa” initiative has provided financial and technical assistance to countries like Ethiopia to improve digital infrastructure. Despite these efforts, the gap remains substantial. Ethiopia, for instance, has seen some improvements in urban connectivity, but rural areas, which constitute about 80% of the population, still face significant barriers to internet access, with penetration rates as low as 20% in some regions (World Bank, 2021). These gaps underscore the challenges that remain in ensuring that the benefits of digital diplomacy and global connectivity are equitably distributed across the continent.

The State of Digital Diplomacy in Africa

The digital divide in Africa presents substantial challenges to the adoption and effectiveness of digital diplomacy, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the inadequacies in digital infrastructure and the high cost of internet access are most pronounced. These infrastructural shortcomings limit the capacity of African diplomats to engage in global digital dialogues and effectively project their nations’ interests on the international stage (Ndulu & Mwega, 2017). The impact of this divide extends beyond mere access to digital platforms; it also influences the quality and strategic use of these platforms by African Ministries of Foreign Affairs (MFAs). As Wekesa (2021) points out, many African diplomats and MFAs primarily utilise social media for domestic communication rather than for engaging with the broader international community. This tendency to prioritise domestic over international engagement further exacerbates the challenges posed by the digital divide, as it hinders African countries from establishing a consistent and influential presence in the global digital diplomatic arena. Consequently, Africa’s voice in international digital diplomacy remains relatively muted, which in turn affects the continent’s ability to influence global diplomatic discourse.
However, investments in digital infrastructure are critical for narrowing the digital divide and fostering an environment conducive to digital diplomacy. According to Ndulu and Mwega (2017), such investments should prioritise expanding internet access, reducing costs, and improving the overall quality of digital services across the continent. This will, thereby, enable African diplomats to engage more effectively with global audiences. Additionally, enhancing digital literacy among diplomats is crucial for bridging the gap between traditional and digital diplomacy. Manor (2019) emphasises that targeted training programs are necessary to equip diplomats with the skills needed to navigate digital platforms strategically, enabling them to participate actively in global digital conversations and represent their nations’ interests more effectively. Furthermore, Wekesa (2021) advocates for the development of comprehensive digital diplomacy policies that address both technological infrastructure and human resource development. These policies should promote the strategic use of digital tools in diplomatic engagements while also safeguarding against digital threats, such as cyber-attacks.
Recent studies have further emphasised these challenges. Teleanu and Kurbalija (2023) focus on the East African region, particularly Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, which face several digital diplomacy challenges. These include significant urban-rural digital divides, with cities like Nairobi and Kigali having better infrastructure compared to rural areas. Connectivity issues, such as unreliable internet and power shortages, hinder digital initiatives. Additionally, limited access to technology and regulatory inconsistencies create uncertainty. Political instability and inadequate cybersecurity measures further expose digital platforms to threats. There is also a shortage of skilled personnel and limited training opportunities, affecting the development of effective digital strategies. Similarly, Adesina (2024), who concentrates on West African nations, particularly Nigeria and Ghana, discusses the need for African countries to embrace digital tools strategically. He notes that despite the challenges, there are significant opportunities for African nations to enhance their international engagement through digital diplomacy. Adesina argues that developing comprehensive digital diplomacy policies and investing in digital infrastructure are critical steps toward bridging the digital divide and strengthening Africa’s global diplomatic influence.

Comparative Analysis of African Regions

Digital diplomacy utilises digital tools and platforms to advance national interests and influence international relations. In Africa, where digital divides vary significantly across regions, leveraging digital diplomacy is crucial for improving digital access and inclusion. This comparative analysis examines the role of digital diplomacy in bridging the digital divide across East, West, Central, North, and South Africa, focusing on internet penetration statistics, diplomatic strategies, and regional challenges.
Eastern Africa
East Africa has made notable progress in digital diplomacy, driven by countries like Kenya and Rwanda. Kenya, with an internet penetration rate of 40.8% in 2024 (Statista, 2024), has invested heavily in digital infrastructure through initiatives such as the National Optic Fiber Backbone Infrastructure (NOFBI). This infrastructure supports digital financial inclusion and economic growth, particularly in e-commerce, where revenue per user was $163 in 2021 (Statista, 2024). The high engagement on social media platforms like WhatsApp and Facebook provides channels for public diplomacy and outreach. However, significant challenges remain, including the urban-rural digital divide, which hampers access in rural areas, and regulatory inconsistencies that impact digital literacy and infrastructure development.
Rwanda’s Vision 2020 and Vision 2050 prioritise becoming a regional tech hub, reflected in its 34.4% internet penetration rate in 2024 (Statista, 2024). The government’s efforts to foster a tech-friendly environment and invest in digital infrastructure are central to its digital diplomacy strategy. Despite advancements, rural connectivity and digital literacy continue to pose challenges, necessitating targeted initiatives to enhance digital access and education.

West Africa
West Africa showcases a diverse digital landscape with notable efforts from countries like Ghana and Nigeria. Ghana has made substantial progress with its Digital Transformation Project, achieving an internet penetration rate of 69.8% in 2024 (Statista, 2024). The government’s focus on improving ICT infrastructure and digital skills supports its digital diplomacy strategy, fostering economic growth and connectivity. Despite these strides, disparities in access between urban and rural areas and ongoing needs for digital literacy improvement remain significant challenges.
Nigeria, with an internet penetration rate of 45.5% in 2024 (Statista, 2024), has introduced the National Digital Economy Policy and Strategy (NDEPS) to promote digital inclusion. Initiatives like the Digital Naira and the development of technology hubs in Lagos and Abuja reflect Nigeria’s strategic approach to digital diplomacy. However, challenges such as infrastructural gaps and regulatory issues affect digital access, particularly in rural areas.

Central Africa
Central Africa faces considerable challenges in bridging the digital divide, largely due to less developed infrastructure. In Cameroon, the internet penetration rate is around 43.9% in 2024 (Statista, 2024). The E-Government Initiative aims to enhance digital access and governance, but progress is hindered by high connectivity costs and infrastructural constraints.
Gabon, with an internet penetration rate of 73.7% in 2023 (Statista, 2024), is making strides through the Gabon Digital Plan. However, the overall lower levels of digital infrastructure in Central Africa and higher costs of connectivity impede broader digital engagement. Addressing these challenges requires substantial investments in infrastructure and targeted digital policies.

North Africa
North Africa generally benefits from more advanced digital infrastructure. Morocco, with an internet penetration rate of 90.7% in 2024 (Statista, 2024), leads the region in digital transformation efforts. The country’s focus on enhancing ICT infrastructure and digital skills demonstrates its commitment to digital diplomacy. Despite this progress, issues related to digital literacy and comprehensive digital policies still need addressing.
Egypt’s Digital Egypt initiative, with an internet penetration rate of 72.2% in 2024 (Statista, 2024), reflects a strategic focus on integrating digital technologies across various sectors. While North Africa’s advanced infrastructure supports digital diplomacy, ensuring inclusive growth requires continued efforts to address digital literacy and policy development.

Southern Africa
Southern Africa demonstrates significant progress in digital infrastructure, with South Africa leading the region due to its relatively advanced network. South Africa stands out for its relatively advanced digital infrastructure compared to many other African nations. With an internet penetration rate of 74.7% (Statista, 2024) compared to its neighbours. For instance, Namibia has an internet penetration rate of about 58.5%, while Botswana and Lesotho report rates of 55.3% and 47.5%, respectively. Conversely, Zambia lags significantly with a rate of 31.1%, and Zimbabwe follows closely behind at 45.6% (Statista, 2024). This disparity underscores the ongoing challenges faced by these countries in enhancing digital access and inclusivity, essential for economic growth and development across the region. The digital divide remains a pressing issue, necessitating targeted strategies to improve connectivity and digital literacy in less connected nations

Conclusion

In conclusion, bridging Africa’s digital divide through targeted digital diplomacy is not just a matter of technological advancement but a vital component of the continent’s sustainable development. Empirical evidence shows that regions with higher internet penetration and digital literacy, such as North and East Africa, are better positioned to participate in the global economy, attract foreign investment, and improve governance through enhanced transparency and citizen engagement. However, the stark disparities within and between regions, particularly in rural areas, highlight the need for a strategic, collaborative approach.
Furthermore, leveraging digital diplomacy for capacity building and international cooperation is crucial in securing the resources and expertise needed to tackle these challenges. Investing in local content creation and innovation will empower communities, preserve cultural identities, and make the digital world more relevant to Africans. Monitoring and evaluating these initiatives will ensure they remain effective and aligned with the goal of equitable digital inclusion, ultimately leading to a more connected and empowered continent that can fully participate in and benefit from the global digital economy.

Strategic Digital Diplomacy Initiatives for Bridging Africa’s Digital Divide

To bridge Africa’s digital divide through digital diplomacy, regional collaboration and knowledge sharing are essential. Establishing regional digital hubs where countries can exchange best practices, technological advancements, and strategies for digital inclusion is a crucial step. For instance, countries in North and East Africa, which exhibit more advanced digital infrastructure, can act as exemplars for others, offering insights and resources to enhance digital capabilities in less developed regions. By promoting cross-border partnerships, nations can collaboratively share resources, expertise, and technological advancements, thereby uplifting areas currently lagging behind. Such initiatives can not only improve connectivity but also stimulate economic development, fostering a more equitable digital landscape across the continent (Nwokolo et al., 2023).
Addressing the divide between urban and rural areas is also critical. Expanding rural connectivity projects by investing in affordable and reliable internet access, such as satellite internet solutions and mobile network expansions, will significantly enhance access in underserved areas. Coupled with this, developing community-based digital literacy programs tailored to rural populations will equip them with the practical skills needed to engage in the digital world effectively. Digital literacy and skills development should be prioritised across the continent. Launching nationwide digital literacy campaigns, in collaboration with governments and international partners, can raise awareness and skill levels across all age groups. Integrating digital skills into educational curricula at all levels will prepare future generations to participate in the digital economy, ensuring that no one is left behind.
Promoting inclusive digital policies is another vital component of bridging the digital divide. Advocacy for policies that ensure affordable access to digital technologies for marginalised communities, including women and the elderly, is necessary. Encouraging public-private partnerships can help develop and implement these inclusive strategies, addressing the specific needs of different regions and populations.
Leveraging digital diplomacy for capacity building is key to making sustainable progress. Organising diplomatic digital training programs for government officials will equip them with the tools needed to engage effectively in international digital initiatives. Strengthening international cooperation through digital diplomacy will also help secure support from global technology leaders and international organisations, fostering initiatives aimed at closing the digital gap in Africa.
Supporting local content creation and innovation is another important aspect. Encouraging the development of digital content that reflects African cultures, languages, and experiences will make the Internet more relevant and accessible to all Africans. Investing in tech start-ups and innovation hubs will foster the growth of home-grown solutions, addressing Africa’s unique digital challenges from within.
Finally, monitoring and evaluating progress is crucial to ensuring the success of these initiatives. Implementing robust monitoring mechanisms will allow for regular assessments, enabling adjustments to strategies based on outcomes and feedback. Setting measurable targets, such as increasing internet penetration rates, improving digital literacy levels, and reducing urban-rural disparities, will help track progress and ensure that digital diplomacy efforts are on the right track. By following these recommendations, future digital diplomacy initiatives can effectively bridge Africa’s digital divide, fostering equitable growth across the continent.

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